However, the impacts of spilled oil and dispersants on sponge grounds cannot be understood without considering exposures mediated through sponge filtration of marine snow particles. At bathyal depths, sponges can accumulate forming dense sponge ground habitats supporting biodiverse associated communities. They host a complex microbial community and provide ecosystem services including nutrient cycling. Sponges (Phylum Porifera) are ideal holobiont models. Therefore, understanding anthropogenic impacts on holobionts is essential. Holobionts formed by a host organism and associated symbionts are key biological units in marine ecosystems where they are responsible for fundamental ecosystem services.
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